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The orthography of the Old Norse language was diverse, being written in both Runic and Latin alphabets, with many spelling conventions, variant letterforms, and unique letters and signs. In modern times, scholars established a standardized spelling for the language. When Old Norse names are used in texts in other languages, modifications to this spelling are often made. In particular, the names of Old Norse mythological characters often have several different spellings.
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The following table gives various attested spellings of sounds and their IPA transcription. In general usage, an orthographic distinction of phones or phonemes is not necessarily held by every writer. For example, an author may only distinguish some vowels by length, and orthographic devices could be mixed and matched. Where the table lists a long-or-short phoneme /(ː)/, a specifically short // or long /ː/ phoneme represents additional spellings not covered by length marking rules. Likewise, a phonetic entry only lists spellings not used by the equivalent phoneme(s). N/A is used when no specific spelling is used, e.g. where all long vowel spellings are found using the rules for deriving long vowel spellings from the short vowel, or no general spelling is used, e.g. when short and long vowels are always spelled differently.
| Latin orthography of Old Norse vowels | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phoneme | /i(ː)/ | /i/U | /e(ː)/ | /æ(ː)/ | /æ/ | /æː/ | /y(ː)/ | /ø(ː)/ | /ø/ | /øː/ |
| General usage | i | i, e, æ | e, æ | æ, ę | e | N/A | y | ø, ö, œ | N/A | |
| Standard normalization | i | e | N/A | e | æ | y | N/A | ø | œ | |
| Phoneme | /u(ː)/ | /u/U | /o(ː)/ | /ɑ(ː)/ | /ɑ/U | /ɒ/ | /æi/ | /ɒu/ | /ɐy/ | /Vː/ |
| General usage | u | u, o | o | a | a, æ | ǫ, o, aE | ei, ęi, æi | au | ey, øy | V, V́, VV |
| Standard normalization | u | o | a | ǫ | ei | au | ey | V́ | ||
| Latin orthography of Old Norse consonants | ||||||||||
| Phone(me) | /p(ː)/ | /b(ː)/ | /m(ː)/ | /f/ | [v] | /þ/ | [ð] | /t(ː)/ | /d(ː)/ | /n(ː)/ |
| General usage | p | b | m | f | ff, u, ffu | þ, th | ð | t | d | n |
| Standard normalization | p | b | m | f | N/A | þ | ð | t | d | n |
| Phone(me) | /l(ː)/ | /lː/ | /s(ː)/ | /r(ː)/ | /ɽ(ː)/ | /j/ | /w/ | /k(ː)/ | /g(ː)/ | [ɣ] |
| General usage | l | ꝇ | s | r | r | i, j | u, v, ƿ, ꝩ | k, c | g | gh |
| Standard normalization | l | N/A | s | r | j | v | k | g | N/A | |
| Phone(me) | /h/ | /hw, hr, hl, hn/ | [ts] | [t, d, ð, n]+[s] | [ks] | [gs] | [kw] | /Cː/ | ||
| General usage | h | h(S) | z | x | gx[1]E | qu, qv, kv, &c. | CC, C | |||
| Standard normalization | h | h(S) | z | N/A | x | N/A | N/A | CC | ||
Legend:
The low/low-mid vowels may be indicated differently:
Dialect-specific sounds:
When dialectal mergers such as OEN monophthongization took place, regional spelling often changed to reflect this. Sometimes, both phonemes' spellings would be used, but confused.
The epenthetic vowel had different regional spellings. In East Norse it was commonly spelled as ⟨e⟩ or ⟨a⟩, while in West Norse it was often spelled ⟨u⟩, almost always so in Iceland.
The original Icelandic manuscripts which are the source of our knowledge of Norse mythology did not employ a unified system of spelling. Thus the same name might be spelled several different ways even in the original manuscripts. Letters unique to the language existed, such as a modified version of the letter Wynn called Vend that was used briefly for the sounds /u/, /v/, and /w/. In particular, the length of vowels was only sporadically marked in many manuscripts and various umlauted vowels were often not distinguished from others. Another complication is that several shortcut forms for common words, syllables, and grammatical endings developed. One example is the use of the rune named maðr (man) for the word maðr. Another is the use of a special glyph for the various r-endings so common in Old Norse. These scribal abbreviations are categorized as follows:[3]
These abbreviation conventions and a majority of the signs are inherited from the Latin language itself, and were common to the Latin alphabet in other languages. However, other signs or conventions are specifically Norse, such as the er zig-zag.
"Normalized spelling" can be used to refer to normalization in general or the standard normalization in particular. With normalized spelling, the manuscript spelling is altered to adhere to be more strict and regular. These respellings are designed to be phonemically precise rather than representative of the manuscripts. The degree of normalization may vary, but in general the text is at the end reduced to limited deviation from a regularized system, perhaps at the expense of some dialectal character.
For various reasons 19th century scholars came up with a standardized normalization of Old Norse which remains in use. It is primarily based on the so-called First Grammatical Treatise. Vowel length is marked and umlauted vowels are unambiguously represented. The standardized spelling employs a few characters that are not available in the most common electronic character sets. Replacements are often used, particularly in electronic formats. The most consequential is the use of ö instead of o-with-tail (ogonek) ǫ.
The following table associates the phonemes of the language to its orthographic representations. Vowel nasalization and length are not distinguished in the table when distinguished in neither orthography, nor is /æi/ distinguished from /æ/+/i/.
| Runic orthography of Old Norse vowels | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phoneme | /i(ː)/ | /eː/ | /i/U, /e/ | /æ(ː)/ | /y(ː)/ | /ø(ː)/ | /u(ː)/ | /u/U | /o(ː)/ | /ɑ(ː)/ | /ɒ(ː)/ | /ɑ̃(ː)/ | /ɒu/, /ɐy/ |
| Younger Futhark, 8th-12th c. | ᛁ | ᛆ/ᛅ, ᚬ/ᚭ | ᚢ | ᚢ, ᚬ/ᚭ | ᛆ/ᛅ | ᛆ/ᛅ, ᛅᚢ/ᛆᚢ | ᚬ/ᚭ | ᛅᚢ/ᛆᚢ | |||||
| Medieval Runes, 11th-14th c. | ᛁ | ᛂ | ᛅ | ᚤ, ᛦ | ᚯ | ᚢ | ᚮ | ᛆ | ᛆᚢ | ||||
| Runic orthography of Old Norse consonants | |||||||||||||
| Phone(me) | /p/ | /b/ | /f/ | [v] | /t/ | /d/ | /θ/ | [ð] | /s/ | [ts] | /k/ | /g/ | /h/ |
| Younger Futhark, 8th-12th c. | ᛒ | ᚠ | ᛏ | ᚦ | ᛋ | ᚴ | ᚼ | ||||||
| Medieval Runes, 11th-14th c. | ᛒ | ᛔ | ᚠ | ᚡ | ᛐ | ᛑ | ᚦ | ᚧ | ᛌ | ᚴ | ᚵ | ᚼ | |
| Phoneme | /m/ | /n/ | /ɾ/ | /ɽ/ | /l/ | /j/ | /w/ | /Cː/ | |||||
| Younger Futhark, 8th-12th c. | ᛘ | ᚾ | ᚱ | ᛦ | ᛚ | ᛁ | ᚢ | N/A | |||||
| Medieval Runes, 11th-14th c. | ᛘ | ᚿ | ᚱ | ᛧ | ᛚ | ᛁ | ᚢ | C, CC | |||||
When transcribing Old Norse texts from Danish and Swedish runestones, many scholars,[4] but not all,[5] use an orthography that is adapted to represent Old East Norse, the dialect of Old Norse in Denmark and Sweden. The main differences are the diphthong æi instead of ei as in stæinn ("stone") and i instead of the glide j as in giald ("payment"). In this standard, the u-umlauted a represented by ǫ is not usually considered, but rendered as the underlying a, as in the name AnundR. Another difference is the representation of the phoneme R, instead of simply r as in West Norse, where the R phoneme merged with r earlier. However, even if they render the transcription according to the local pronunciation, the Rundata project presents personal names according to the previously mentioned standardized spelling in English translations. Here follows an example from the Orkesta Runestone (U 344):
Standardized spelling:
The rendering of Old East Norse:
But when translating into English, the standardized spelling is used:
In many modern Icelandic publications of Old Norse works, the modern Icelandic spelling is used. Since it is based on the same basic system the difference is not great. One notable difference is probably the insertion of u before r in many names. Thus the Old Norse name Baldr comes out as Baldur in modern Icelandic. Other differences include vowel-shifts, whereby Old Norse ǫ became Icelandic ö, and Old Norse œ became Icelandic æ.
For the convenience of English writers and readers the Old Norse characters not used in English are commonly replaced with English ones. This can lead to ambiguity and confusion. Diacritics may be removed (á → a, ö → o). The following character conversions also take place:
Another common convention in English is to drop consonant nominative endings:
Sometimes a j is dropped after ey.
Other quirks sometimes seen include adding a Latin -a suffix to the names of goddesses.
Obviously the various permutations allow for many possible spellings for a given name.
Some authors, for example, replace þ with th and ð with th, dh or d but keep the accents; others may not replace ǫ with ö but prefer o.
Thus, in addition to the various versions below, the name of Hǫðr could come out as:
A list of some commonly encountered Old Norse names with variant spellings. * marks anglicizations.
Gods (In Old Norse called Æsir)
Goddesses:
Giants:
Giantesses:
Animals:
Places:
Other:
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